The Magadha Imperialism

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The history of India assumes a more or less definite shape towards the end of the seventh century B.C.

During this period, the whole country was divided into a number of independent states. North India was split into sixteen “Mahajanapadas.” Some of these states were monarchial others were either republicans or oligarchics. Out of these sixteen some of the prominent ones were Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Vriji, Kasi, Kosala and Avanti.

The four important dynasties who tired to establish their supremacy at the cost of the minor states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. There was no political unity at all in Northern India.

Very little is known about the political fortunes of these republics but information about the method of their administrations is available.

These republics or Sanghas were governed on democratic lines. Elected chief acted as the President of the administrative council. The matters of justice and administration were discussed in an assembly hall.

The assembly of the people could also be called on special occasions. The President of the Council was called a Raja. It is not known as to how he was elected and for how long he rules but it appears that the office was not hereditary. He was more or less like a Mayor of the area. The local administration was carried on by local assemblies which played an important part in the administration of the State.

In some of these republics villages were organized on professional bases, e.g., the potters and smiths of the clan used to have separate villages of their own. The small republics were gradually losing their importance and were being over-shadowed by kingdoms like Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, Magadha, etc.

Avanti

It was an important state of western India and included the territories of modern Malwa, Nirmar and the adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh. Ujjayni and Mahishwati were the respective capitals of is northern and southern territories. Its ruler Pradyota was in constant rivalry with the neighbouring states of Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha.

Its last ruler was defeated by Sisunaga who included it in the state of Magadha.

Vatsa

Kausambi was capital of Vatsa and its ruler was Udayana. Udayana was not only a powerful king who was also well-versed in many fine arts, particularly, music. Once he was captured by Pradyota of Avanti by treachery but he eloped with Pradyota’s daughter Vasavadatta and married her. One of his other queens was the sister of king Darsaka of Magadha.

He was not inclined to Buddhism in the beginning but later on accepted it.

Kosala

Its boundaries corresponded roughly with modern Avadh. It was divided into north and south by the river Sarayu; Sravasti and Kusavati were its respective capitals. Its ruler, a contemporary of the Buddha, was Prasenajit who had accepted Buddhism and had matrimonial relations with the state of Magadha.

He had extended its supremacy over the Sakyas of Kapilvastu.

Magadha

Magadha was one of the most important states of North India in the sixth century B.C.

Later on, it became the most powerful state, stood out as the supreme power in North India and ushered in the age of big empires in India.

Administration of different states at that time differed from each other.

There were five types of administrative politics, viz. Samarajya, Bhojya, Swarajya, Vairajya and Rajya.

In Samarajyapolity, the head of the state was called Samrat, his coronation was a necessity and his position was hereditary.

In Bhojya polity, the head of the state was called Bhoja, his status was not hereditary rather, he was assigned administrative authority for a fixed period.

In Swaraja polity, the head of the state was called Swarata and its administration was carried on by some respected Kulas which were regarded equal to each other.

In Vairajya polity, the head of the state was called as the king, the representatives of the people.

In Rajya polity, tribal administration continued as before. The Janapadas of Kuru and Panchala in Madya-desh pursued this system.

Most of the contemporary texts have referred to the Samarajya polity where the head of the state was called the Samrat whose office was hereditary. Such states got better opportunities for their territorial expansion. The use of the iron increased the area under cultivation and agricultural production.

The monarch drew maximum advantage from it as his share from the produce was fixed and he alone had the right to permit clearance of forests. Increased agricultural production led to increased trade and commerce which again benefited the monarch.

All this resulted in the material prosperity of the emperor which helped him in increasing his military strength which he could fruitfully utilize for the expansion of the territories of his empire. The rise of Magadha in the 6th century B.C. was also because of the fact that it had hereditary monarchical rule, viz., Samarajya polity.

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Tags: avanti, bhoja, buddhist, imperialism, jainism, kosala, magadha, mahajanapadas, purans, rajya polity, republic, tribal administration, vatsa, vedic literature

Comparison of Buddhism, Jainism

Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries and there was much in common between Buddhism and Jainism. Because of the striking resemblances, certain scholars have opined that Jainism originated in Buddhism.

There may be many similarities between two but the basic differences in their philosophies provide each of them a place of a distinct religion. Some of the similarities and distinctions between the religion are as follows:

Similarities

1. Both reliions possessed the background of the Aryan culture and were inspired by the ascetic ideals and the philosophy of the Upanishads. The source of the philosophies of both was the same though both of them made certain changes in it.
2. Both were the products of intellectual, spiritual and social forces of their age and, both stood up as revolts against the prevalent Brahmanical religion.
3. Both emerged in eastern India.
4. Both were started by the members of the Kshatriya caste and both appealed to the socially down-trodden, the Vaishyas who were not granted social status corresponding to their growing economic power, and the Shudras who were definitely oppressed.
5. Mahavira and Buddha, were Kshatriya Princes and were able to get support for their cause from the contemporary ruling class.
6. Both were opposed to caste system.
7. Both opposed ritualism and the sacrifice.
8. Both believed that Nirvana or salvation of an individual meant his or her deliverance from the eternal chain of birth and death.
9. Both denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority.
10. Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life rather than practice of ritualism or even devotion to and worship of God as a means to attain salvation.
11. Both emphasized Ahimsa or non-violence.
12. Both accepted the doctrines of the transmigration of soul and Karma.
13. Both preached their religion in the common language of the people and discarded Sanskrit as the language of their early religious texts.
14. The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali and Jaina texts were written in Prakrit.
15. Both encouraged the idea of giving up the world and urged to lead the life an ascetic.
16. Both organized orders for monks and nuns.

Differences

1. Jainism is a much more ancient religion as compared to Buddhism. According to Jain traditions it had twenty-four Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them. That is why, while Mahavira has been regarded as a reformer of an already existing religion, the Buddha has been regarded as the originator of a new one.
2. The Jain concept of soul is different from that of Buddhism. Jainism believes that everything in nature, even stone and water, has a soul of its own. Buddhism does not believe so.
3. The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is different in Buddhism as compared to Jainism. While Jainism over emphasized it, Buddhism remained liberal in its interpretation.
4. Buddhism emphasized elimination of caste distinctions more as compared to Jainism.
5. Jainism advised practice of strict asceticism to attain salvation while Buddhism advised its Upasakas to follow the middle path or Tathagata marg.
6. According to Jainism, women and men house-holders cannot attain salvation, while, according to Buddhism, it is possible for both.
7. In Digambara sect of Jainism, it is necessary for the monks to go naked while Buddhism denounced it.
8. Buddhism emphasized the organization of Sanghas more as compared to Jainism.
9. According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one’s own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana freedom from body, Buddhism describes it as destruction of the self or detachment from worldly existence.
10. Buddhism proved more adaptable to circumstances as compared to Jainism. That is why while Buddhism spread all over Asia and accommodated traditions of the local populace, Jainism remained confined to India alone.
11. In practice, Jainism remained closer to Hinduism than Buddhism. Therefore, conflicts between Jainism and Hinduism were negligible while Buddhism and Hinduism challenged each other and proved rivals to each other.
12. Jainism never spread beyond the frontiers of India while Buddhism spread over distant countries of Asia.

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Tags: Comparison of Buddhism, Jainism

Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism

There are certain similarities and distinction between Brahmanism and Jainism and Buddhism.

Buddha did not give a new divine book to his followers; nor did he condemn any fundamental belief of the Brahmanical religion. The principle of Karma on which Buddhist laid great emphasis was not new.

In the latter Vedic period, the Karma philosophy was explained in DharmaShastra and Sutra literature. ‘Pari Nirvana’ of Buddhists was also not something new. The highest ideal of a follower of the Vedas was to attain Moksha-freedom from birth and death; and this is the highest goal of the Buddhists also.

The eight fold path of the Buddhists contained only those great principle of mortality which were taught by the Vedic Rishis.

Buddhists and Hindus both, in the beginning, had no faith in idol worship.

There were a number of points on which Brahmanism and Buddhism differed radically. In the first instance, Brahmanism believed in and worshipped a number of nature-Gods. Buddhists denied the existence of a personal God. Buddha held that there was a universal law-Dharma which controlled the universe, and this Force of Power could not be bribed by prayers of the votary. It is good deeds and not prayers, and chanting of mantras, performing of sacrifices that can lead to Moksha.

The Buddhist also condemned the cast system, and the Sanskrit language held no sanctity for them. They held that all were born equal and no person could claim any superiority in the sphere of religion, simply by virtue of birth. Good deeds and not birth determine one’s position in the society.

Besides, Buddhism was a missionary religion. It had its Sangha-an organization whose special duty was to carry the message of Buddha to every home. Bhikshus and Bhikshunis devoted all their life to the spreading of the faith.

On the other hand, the Brahmanas had no such organization. They had Sanyasis who were to uplift the people in the sphere of religion; but those Sanyasis were not as organized.

The Buddhists believed in non-violence or Ahimsa. Injury to animals was a great sin.

But Hinduism had no faith in non-violence. The Brahmans performed animal sacrifices to please their Gods. They were materialistic and did not look down upon war. Even their God Indra used to fight against the God of evil, Vratra, who was with holding rain from the people.

Brahmanism and Jainism, too, are fundamentally not different. Both believed in Karma and Moksha. Both lay emphasis on morality. But in matters of detail they have wide differences. The Jains, unlike the Buddhists, do not deny the existence of God altogether. They carry the principle of Ahimsa to extreme. According to Mahavira, even the plants, stones and fire have life and non life is to be destroyed or injured. Brahmanism has no faith in such things.

The Jains hold that death by gradual starvation is a noble thing. The Brahmans consider it a sin. The Jains consider wearing of cloths as something irreligious, but Brahmans do not go to such an extreme.

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Tags: buddha, buddhism, hinduism, indra, jainism, moksha

Rise and Fall of Jainism

Svetambaras and Digambaras are main sects of Jains. The Svetambaras wear white robes where as the Digambaras use no clothes. The former are the followers of Parsava while the latter of Mahavira.

Jainism remained confined to India and never attempted distant conquest. Chief activity of Jainism was in Gujarat, Malwa and Rajputana where they are still an influential community.

Early literary development of the Kanarese and Tamil languages was due to a great measure to the labours of the Jain monks.

Their doctrine of ‘ahimsa’ had also greatly modified Hinduism.

Jainism was a popular religion and still exists in India with a large following. The Jain Tirthankaras were adored in temples with the passage of time and, by the Middle Ages their worship was very near to the Hindus with offerings of flowers, incense, lamps etc.

Jainism proved more accommodating to Hinduism and did not offer serious hostility.

According to Jainism all knowledge is probable and relative and thus possesses a tolerant spirit of accommodation with other religions. These factors helped in its progress and are responsible for its existence in present-day India.

However, various factors contributed to its decline in India.

• Absence of popular religious preachers after the death of Mahavira
• Division into two sects, absence of protection by the later rulers
• Revival of Hinduism under the Gupta, Chola, Chalukya and Rajput kings

Jainism has helped enriching Indian culture, in the fields of literature, architecture and sculpture. The language of its religious texts of Jainism had been Prakrit. It gave a literary shape to some spoken languages of India. Its contribution to art reached its zenith in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

The temples and idols are still existing in cities such as Mathura, Gwalior, Junagarh, Chittor, Abu and other places of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Mysore and Orissa. These have been accepted as the best specimens of Indian architecture and sculpture. Out of these well known are particularly the temples of Abu, the Jain tower at Chittorgarh, the elephant caves of Orissa and the 70 feet high idol of Gomateshwara or Bahubali in Mysore.

The original texts of Jains were called Purvas and were 14 in number. In the third century B.C. a Jain council held at Patliputra arranged them in twelve parts known as Angas. the twelfth Anga was lost in the course of time. The remaining eleven Angas were again arranged by a Jain council held at Valabhi in the fifth century A.D. These books were written in the Prakrit language.

Digambaras, constituted their own texts because they did not recognize these angas.

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Tags: anga, buddhism, contribution, Decline, hinduism, jain, jainism, mahavira, Rajputana, religious text, rise, sects, spread, vaisali

Doctrines and Philosophy of Jainism

The Jain philosophy shows a close affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy. They ignore the idea of God, and accept that the world is full of sorrows and believe in the theory of karma (action or deed) and transmigration of souls.

Jain philosophy is dualism and believes that human personality is formed of two elements; jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter). While ajiva is destructible, jiva is indestructible and salvation is possible through progress of jiva.

Jain philosophy states that if one desires to attain Nirvana it is necessary for him to destroy karma. One can do so gradually by avoiding evil karmas. To equip himself the person should observe the five principles

• 1. Satya (truth)
• Ahimsa (non-violence)
• Aprigraha (no possession of property)
• Asteya (not to receive anything which is not freely given).
• Brahamacharya (celibacy).

Mahavira did not believe in a supreme creator or God. The highest state of a soul was regards as god by him. According to Jainism, man is the architect of his own destiny and he could attain salvation by pursuing a life of purity, virtue and renunciation.

It belives that the world has not been created, maintained or destroyed by a personal deity, but functions only according to universal law of decay and development. The universe is eternal but is subject to an infinite number of cycles of development and decline.

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Tags: doctrines, god, jain, jainism, mahavira, non violence, origin, parsava, philosophy, rishabha, samkhya, truth

An Introduction To Jainism

In contrast to the general belief among the people that the founder of Jainism is Mahavira Nataputa, the Jains say that Mahavira is their last prophet, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. They hold that their religion is as old as Rigveda, and that their first Tirthankara Rishabha, was the father of Bharata, the first Vedic Chakravartin king of India.

Rishabha was followed by twenty-three, Tirthankaras.

Very little is known about these Tirthankaras except the last two the twenty-third and twenty-fourth.

The twenty-third “Thirthankara” was Parsava Nath. The knowledge about him is very scanty. He was a Kshatriya and the son of King Ashavasena of Banaras.

For thirty years he led the life of an ordinary householder, and then became an ascetic. He meditated for 84 days continuously and attained the highest knowledge. The next seventy years of his life were spent in spreading the highest knowledge to the people. Parsava asked his followers to take four vows:

• Not to injure life
• Not to tell a lie
• Not to steal anything
• Not to possess property

The real founder of Jainism was its 24th Tirthankara, Mahavira. His name was Vardhamana. He was born in Vaisali, called Kundagrama about 540 B.C. His father, Siddharatha, was a wealthy nobleman and his mother, Trishala, was the sister of Chetaka, an eminent Lichchhavi prince of Vaisali. He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter called Priyadrasana.

He left his family and became a monk after the death of his parents at the age of 30. he abandoned his clothing and became a naked monk.

For twelve years he roamed about as a naked fakir doing all types of penances. During this period he fully subdued his sense. He was attacked and ridiculed but never lost his patience nor indulged in feelings of hatred or revenge against his enemies. These twelve years of penance and meditation were not wasted.

In the thirteenth year on the 10th Vaisakh he acquired the highest knowledge at Jrimbikagrama. He now possessed the four infinitities-

• Infinite knowledge
• Infinite power
• Infinite perception
• Infinite joy.

Thus he became a Jina (conqueror ) or Mahavira (a great hero) at the age of forty-two.

He decided to devote the rest of his life to the teaching of his new doctrine to the people. He founded a new sect called “Jains”.

After 30 years of preaching Mahavira died at Pawa near Rajagriha.

The traditional date of Mahavira’s death is 546 B.C.

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Tags: doctrines, god, jain, jainism, mahavira, non violence, origin, parsava, philosophy, rishabha, samkhya, truth