(430-364 B.C.)

Sisunaga had gained respect under the weak successors of Ajatasatru and, probably, became the ruler of Magadha with the consent of the people.

He proved to be a capable ruler and extended the territories of Magadha. He defeated the neighbouring rival state of Avanti, Vatsa and Kosala annexed theri territories to Magadha.

Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna. He made Pataliputra the capital of Magadha.

Kalasoka was murdered because of a palace conspiracy and, probably, his murderer was the founder of Nanda dynasty.

The ten sons of Kalasoka ruled for ten years after him. The princes were allowed to rule nominally for these years to cover the guilt of the murder of their father. But, ultimately, all of them were killed and a new dynasty of kings started its rule over Magadha.

Regarding the first Nanda ruler, there is a difference of opinion. Puranas called him Mohapadma whereas the Mahabodhivamsa gives his name as Ugrasena. Jain-texts describe him as the son of a barber while Puranas say that the founder of the Nanda dynasty was a Sudra.

Mahapadma Nanda according to Puranas destroyed all Kshatriya rulers. The kingdoms of Aikshvakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Sursenas etc., were defeated and their territories were annexed to Magadha. Nandas rules over the southern part of Bombay and north-western part of Mysore.

Nandas succeeded in establishing a great empire which covered the greater part of northern India and part of the South. The credit for it goes primarily to the first ruler of this dynasty.

Nine rulers of Nanda dynasty ruled over Magadha. Little is known about the history of Nandas after Mahapadma Nanda except the last ruler, nicknamed Dhana Nanda.

He was a contemporary of Alexander and his empire seems to have extended up to the frontiers of Punjab. He was a powerful king and kept a large army. But he was cruel and miserly. He accumulated fabulous wealth at the expense of his subjects by means of excessive taxation and extractions. Therefore, he was unpopular among his subjects.

Chandra Gupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty took advantage of his unpopularity and succeeded in killing him and captured the throne of Magadha.

Ajatasatru, refused and thus a protracted war began between Magadha and Kosala. The war remained indecisive for a long time but ultimately Prasenajit agreed to give Kasi to Ajatasatru and also gave his daughter Vajira in marriage to him, which proves that the outcome of war, finally, went in favour of Magadha.

The foundation of the political supremacy of Magadha was laid by Ajatasatru by defeating the strong confederacy of Vriji. The confederacy which dominated Eastern India included 36 republican states. The bone of contention between the two powers was a newfound jewel-mine.

The two powers had agreed to share equally the jewels of the mine but the Lichchhavi violated this agreement and so the war was declared by Magadha.

The real issue was that Magadha could not be the supreme power in Eastern India without defeating the powerful Lichchhavi confederacy. This was realized by both sides. That is why not only the Lichchhavi but the entire Vriji confederacy including the chiefs of Kasi and Kosala united themselves against Magadha.

The conflict between Magadha and the confederacy continued for sixteen years (484-468). Ajatasatru made all sorts of preparations for it. To be near the theatre of war, a new fort was built near the bank of the Ganges, which later grew to be the famous city of Pataliputra and future capital of Magadha.

Ajatasatru also realized that to gain victory against such a powerful confederacy its inner unity had to destroyed.

Therefore, he sent his minister, Vassakara, to sow of dissension amongst the members of the confederacy. Vassakara remained there for three years and proved successful in his mission. The political and social unity of the Vrijis was broken. Moreover Magadha was able to produce two new weapons of war.

One was the Mahasilakantaka which was used to throw heavy pieces of stone on the enemy from a distance.

The other was the Rathamusala, a chariot with knives and cutting edges fixed on to it and a place under cover for the charioteer.

Thus after preparing himself diplomatically and militarily, Ajatasatru attacked the Vrijis and finally won. Magadha became an unchallenged supreme power in east India.

The success of Ajatasatru aroused the hostility of king Chanda Pradyota of Avanti who started making preparations to attack Magadha. But it was Ajatasatru who strengthened his fortifications and took various other measures to defend his boundaries and succeeded. Pradyota could not attack Magadha. Ajatasatru was successful in further extending the boundaries of his kingdom and in laying the foundations of the greatness of Magadha.

Ajatasatru was of liberal religious opinions. Ajatasatru, probably, was first inclined to Jainism but later on he became a devotee of the Buddha. The first General Council of the Buddhists was held under his patronage near Rajagriha. He built several Buddhist Chaityas.

Ajatasatru died in 461 B.C. Five kings succeeded him.All of them ascended the throne after killing their fathers.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayabhadra. The rivalry between Magadha and Avanti continued during his time but Udayabhadra succeeded in defeating Palaka, the then ruler of Avanti several times. It is believed that Palaka then engaged a hired assassin to kill Udayabhadra who murdered him when he was listening to the discourse of a religious teacher. Udayabhadra was a Jain. He built a town called Kusumapura and a Jain Chaityagriha inside it.

Udayabhadra was succeeded by Anurudha, Munda and Nagadasaka respectively. None of them proved himself capable of ruling and ach of them was a parricide. It created dissatisfaction among their subjects and, therefore, one of the ministers of the last king, Sisunaga succeeded in overthrowing his rule and established the rule of a new dynasty.

Apart from ambitious and powerful rulers, other geographical, economic and cultural factors also contributed to its rise. There were certain permanent factors also which enabled it to rise to to the zenith of political greatness.

Magadha occupied a strategic position of geographical importance. The river Ganges and its tributaries Son, Gandak and Gagra served as means for defence, communication and trade. The older, capital Rajagriha was protected by seven hills and the later one Pataliputra being at the junction of the Ganges and the Son had natural means of defence.

The natural facilities of communication and trade helped it in its economic prosperity.

The land of Magadha was also fertile which yielded rich harvests. Land taxes could be kept high which proved to be regular and substantial sources of income to the state without which the maintenance of a big army could not be possible and the empire could neither be built up nor consolidated.

Besides, while neighbouring forests provided timber for building and elephants for the army, its own iron ore deposits made profitable the manufacture of better implements and weapons and a profitable trade in iron. Thus Magadha became an economically prosperous and militarily strong state.

Magadha, being in the East, was a place where a balanced synthesis between the Aryan and the non-Aryan cultures took place. The Brahmanic culture could not claim dominance in Magadha because by the time it reached there it had lost much of its strength and, therefore, liberal traditions in religion and society could be maintained in Magadha, Jainism and Buddhism which took their birth within the territories of Magadha were, probably, the results of liberal traditions and they participated in further enhancing these traditions.

Liberal traditions also contributed to the building of a strong empire in Magadha.

The administrative system of Magadha, wherein the state was ruled by a hereditary monarch who had the opportunity to enhance his financial and military resource, was also one of the causes of its rise.

The foundation of the Magadha empire was laid by Bimbisara and Ajatastru. Both were ambitious rulers and extended the boundaries of Magadha both by war and diplomacy.

After Ajatasatru, Sisunaga pursued the policy of empire-building and then came the Nandas who finally succeeded in establishing the first great empire in India.They created an extensive empire in India and left it to their successors, the Mauryas in a state when it was extremely prosperous and militarily strong so that the Mauryas became powerful enough to turn the foreigners, the Greeks out of India and also succeeded in completing the task began by Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of consolidating Indian into a big empire.

The descendants of Brihadratha were overthrown in 600 B.C. by Sisunaga who founded the Sisunaga dynasty. The first well-known ruler of this kingdom was Bimbisara. Bimbisara ruled for forty-nine years. He made Rajagriha his capital. A man of determination and political foresight he realized the importance of a large kingdom decided to make Magadha such a state. He pursued his ambition both by wars and a policy of matrimonial alliances.

Bimbisara had five hundred wives. He entered into dynastic relations based n marriage with several important royal families of his time which helped him much in his political career. His first wife was a sister of Prasenjait, the king of Kosala, who gave him a part of the kingdom of Kasi in dowry.

His second wife Chellana was the daughter of the Lichchhavi king, Chetaka, one the most important feudatory chief of the republican state of the Vrijis with its capital at Vaisali. His third wife was Vasavi, princes of the kingdom of Vaideh and Khema was the daughter of the king of Madra of Central Punjab.

These marriage alliances of definitely enhanced his prestige besides helping in the extension of his territories.

Bimbisara conquered the state of Anga. The conquest marked the beginning of the greatness of Magadha. Bimbisara’s father had been defeated by Brahadatta, king of Anga. Probably, it was to avenge this defeat that Bimbisara attacked Anga and succeeded in conquering it.

Bimbisara, for the first time, laid down the foundation of an efficient administration in Magadha. He constructed several canals and roads, appointed several new officers for administrative purposes and arranged for the regular collection of revenue. It helped him in increasing his financial resources and military strength.

Bimbisara proved to be an able ruler who recognized the necessity of an officient administration. There were several ministers who helped the king in administration. They were chosen on merit and their advice was generally not ignored. Besides, there were different officers who were divided into different categories according to the nature of their work. The executive or administrative officers were called Sabbatthakas, the judicial officers Voharikas and the military officers Senanayakas.

However, the basic units of administration were the villages. Each village was under the jurisdiction of a headman who was responsible for the collection of taxes and handing them over to the other officials of the state. Theoretically, the land belonged to the king though nobody was displaced from the land till he paid 1/6th of the produce, which was regarded the king’s share.

Mostly Sudras worked as cultivators though they were not masters of the land. They were engaged as labourers. This had lowered their status. Therefore, a new class of Sudras, that is untouchables, came to be recognized during this period.

Bimbisara was very tolerant in religious affairs. He revered both Jainism and Buddhism equally. Therefore, both the Jains and Buddhists claimed Bimbisara as their follower.

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Abhinav Bindra With Gold Medal

Abhinav Bindra won the gold medal in the Men’s 10m Air Rifle in Beijing on August 11.
Bindra shot a total score of 700.5.

He scored over China’s Zhu Qinan who came with 699.7 points and Finland’s Henri Hakkinen who secured third place with 699.4 points.

Bindra had been fourth after qualifying but had a brilliant final round and even hit a near perfect 10.8 on his last shot to pull in front of Henri Hakkinen.

During this period, the whole country was divided into a number of independent states. North India was split into sixteen “Mahajanapadas.” Some of these states were monarchial others were either republicans or oligarchics. Out of these sixteen some of the prominent ones were Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Vriji, Kasi, Kosala and Avanti.

The four important dynasties who tired to establish their supremacy at the cost of the minor states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. There was no political unity at all in Northern India.

Very little is known about the political fortunes of these republics but information about the method of their administrations is available.

These republics or Sanghas were governed on democratic lines. Elected chief acted as the President of the administrative council. The matters of justice and administration were discussed in an assembly hall.

The assembly of the people could also be called on special occasions. The President of the Council was called a Raja. It is not known as to how he was elected and for how long he rules but it appears that the office was not hereditary. He was more or less like a Mayor of the area. The local administration was carried on by local assemblies which played an important part in the administration of the State.

In some of these republics villages were organized on professional bases, e.g., the potters and smiths of the clan used to have separate villages of their own. The small republics were gradually losing their importance and were being over-shadowed by kingdoms like Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, Magadha, etc.

Avanti

It was an important state of western India and included the territories of modern Malwa, Nirmar and the adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh. Ujjayni and Mahishwati were the respective capitals of is northern and southern territories. Its ruler Pradyota was in constant rivalry with the neighbouring states of Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha.

Its last ruler was defeated by Sisunaga who included it in the state of Magadha.

Vatsa

Kausambi was capital of Vatsa and its ruler was Udayana. Udayana was not only a powerful king who was also well-versed in many fine arts, particularly, music. Once he was captured by Pradyota of Avanti by treachery but he eloped with Pradyota’s daughter Vasavadatta and married her. One of his other queens was the sister of king Darsaka of Magadha.

He was not inclined to Buddhism in the beginning but later on accepted it.

Kosala

Its boundaries corresponded roughly with modern Avadh. It was divided into north and south by the river Sarayu; Sravasti and Kusavati were its respective capitals. Its ruler, a contemporary of the Buddha, was Prasenajit who had accepted Buddhism and had matrimonial relations with the state of Magadha.

He had extended its supremacy over the Sakyas of Kapilvastu.

Magadha

Magadha was one of the most important states of North India in the sixth century B.C.

Later on, it became the most powerful state, stood out as the supreme power in North India and ushered in the age of big empires in India.

Administration of different states at that time differed from each other.

There were five types of administrative politics, viz. Samarajya, Bhojya, Swarajya, Vairajya and Rajya.

In Samarajyapolity, the head of the state was called Samrat, his coronation was a necessity and his position was hereditary.

In Bhojya polity, the head of the state was called Bhoja, his status was not hereditary rather, he was assigned administrative authority for a fixed period.

In Swaraja polity, the head of the state was called Swarata and its administration was carried on by some respected Kulas which were regarded equal to each other.

In Vairajya polity, the head of the state was called as the king, the representatives of the people.

In Rajya polity, tribal administration continued as before. The Janapadas of Kuru and Panchala in Madya-desh pursued this system.

Most of the contemporary texts have referred to the Samarajya polity where the head of the state was called the Samrat whose office was hereditary. Such states got better opportunities for their territorial expansion. The use of the iron increased the area under cultivation and agricultural production.

The monarch drew maximum advantage from it as his share from the produce was fixed and he alone had the right to permit clearance of forests. Increased agricultural production led to increased trade and commerce which again benefited the monarch.

All this resulted in the material prosperity of the emperor which helped him in increasing his military strength which he could fruitfully utilize for the expansion of the territories of his empire. The rise of Magadha in the 6th century B.C. was also because of the fact that it had hereditary monarchical rule, viz., Samarajya polity.

The Hindu sastra-karas (i.e. those who have written the Sastras, the scientific treatises) have taken man into account as a social being with reference to four broad factors that influence his life and its conduct: He is considered in relation to:

1. Desa, (place, region) which may be said to be the regional approach to the study of society.
2. Kala (time) which, we may say, constitutes the historical approach to the study of society.
3. Srama (effort) which takes into account man with reference to his nurture and development in the contemporary environment and
4. Guna (natural traits) which, refers to the natural inherent psycho-biological equipment of man.

Hinduism can be studied thought under the last two headings, i.e. man as a social being in connection with his nurtural development (srama), and in connection with his natural endowments (guna).

Here we may note that in substance, all the Hindu sages agree that any plan or scheme of social organization which aims at the best take him into account from these two aspects:

1. It must consider man as a social being with reference to his training and development in the natural and social environment in order to enable him to fulfil the final aim of his existence; and
2. This has to be co-rodinated with another scheme which studiesman with reference to his natural endowments, dispositions and attitudes.

The first of these is the problem undertaken in the scheme of the ashramas; the second is thought out in the scheme of Varnas.

There may be many similarities between two but the basic differences in their philosophies provide each of them a place of a distinct religion. Some of the similarities and distinctions between the religion are as follows:

Similarities

1. Both reliions possessed the background of the Aryan culture and were inspired by the ascetic ideals and the philosophy of the Upanishads. The source of the philosophies of both was the same though both of them made certain changes in it.
2. Both were the products of intellectual, spiritual and social forces of their age and, both stood up as revolts against the prevalent Brahmanical religion.
3. Both emerged in eastern India.
4. Both were started by the members of the Kshatriya caste and both appealed to the socially down-trodden, the Vaishyas who were not granted social status corresponding to their growing economic power, and the Shudras who were definitely oppressed.
5. Mahavira and Buddha, were Kshatriya Princes and were able to get support for their cause from the contemporary ruling class.
6. Both were opposed to caste system.
7. Both opposed ritualism and the sacrifice.
8. Both believed that Nirvana or salvation of an individual meant his or her deliverance from the eternal chain of birth and death.
9. Both denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority.
10. Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life rather than practice of ritualism or even devotion to and worship of God as a means to attain salvation.
11. Both emphasized Ahimsa or non-violence.
12. Both accepted the doctrines of the transmigration of soul and Karma.
13. Both preached their religion in the common language of the people and discarded Sanskrit as the language of their early religious texts.
14. The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali and Jaina texts were written in Prakrit.
15. Both encouraged the idea of giving up the world and urged to lead the life an ascetic.
16. Both organized orders for monks and nuns.

Differences

1. Jainism is a much more ancient religion as compared to Buddhism. According to Jain traditions it had twenty-four Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them. That is why, while Mahavira has been regarded as a reformer of an already existing religion, the Buddha has been regarded as the originator of a new one.
2. The Jain concept of soul is different from that of Buddhism. Jainism believes that everything in nature, even stone and water, has a soul of its own. Buddhism does not believe so.
3. The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is different in Buddhism as compared to Jainism. While Jainism over emphasized it, Buddhism remained liberal in its interpretation.
4. Buddhism emphasized elimination of caste distinctions more as compared to Jainism.
5. Jainism advised practice of strict asceticism to attain salvation while Buddhism advised its Upasakas to follow the middle path or Tathagata marg.
6. According to Jainism, women and men house-holders cannot attain salvation, while, according to Buddhism, it is possible for both.
7. In Digambara sect of Jainism, it is necessary for the monks to go naked while Buddhism denounced it.
8. Buddhism emphasized the organization of Sanghas more as compared to Jainism.
9. According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one’s own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana freedom from body, Buddhism describes it as destruction of the self or detachment from worldly existence.
10. Buddhism proved more adaptable to circumstances as compared to Jainism. That is why while Buddhism spread all over Asia and accommodated traditions of the local populace, Jainism remained confined to India alone.
11. In practice, Jainism remained closer to Hinduism than Buddhism. Therefore, conflicts between Jainism and Hinduism were negligible while Buddhism and Hinduism challenged each other and proved rivals to each other.
12. Jainism never spread beyond the frontiers of India while Buddhism spread over distant countries of Asia.

Buddha did not give a new divine book to his followers; nor did he condemn any fundamental belief of the Brahmanical religion. The principle of Karma on which Buddhist laid great emphasis was not new.

In the latter Vedic period, the Karma philosophy was explained in DharmaShastra and Sutra literature. ‘Pari Nirvana’ of Buddhists was also not something new. The highest ideal of a follower of the Vedas was to attain Moksha-freedom from birth and death; and this is the highest goal of the Buddhists also.

The eight fold path of the Buddhists contained only those great principle of mortality which were taught by the Vedic Rishis.

Buddhists and Hindus both, in the beginning, had no faith in idol worship.

There were a number of points on which Brahmanism and Buddhism differed radically. In the first instance, Brahmanism believed in and worshipped a number of nature-Gods. Buddhists denied the existence of a personal God. Buddha held that there was a universal law-Dharma which controlled the universe, and this Force of Power could not be bribed by prayers of the votary. It is good deeds and not prayers, and chanting of mantras, performing of sacrifices that can lead to Moksha.

The Buddhist also condemned the cast system, and the Sanskrit language held no sanctity for them. They held that all were born equal and no person could claim any superiority in the sphere of religion, simply by virtue of birth. Good deeds and not birth determine one’s position in the society.

Besides, Buddhism was a missionary religion. It had its Sangha-an organization whose special duty was to carry the message of Buddha to every home. Bhikshus and Bhikshunis devoted all their life to the spreading of the faith.

On the other hand, the Brahmanas had no such organization. They had Sanyasis who were to uplift the people in the sphere of religion; but those Sanyasis were not as organized.

The Buddhists believed in non-violence or Ahimsa. Injury to animals was a great sin.

But Hinduism had no faith in non-violence. The Brahmans performed animal sacrifices to please their Gods. They were materialistic and did not look down upon war. Even their God Indra used to fight against the God of evil, Vratra, who was with holding rain from the people.

Brahmanism and Jainism, too, are fundamentally not different. Both believed in Karma and Moksha. Both lay emphasis on morality. But in matters of detail they have wide differences. The Jains, unlike the Buddhists, do not deny the existence of God altogether. They carry the principle of Ahimsa to extreme. According to Mahavira, even the plants, stones and fire have life and non life is to be destroyed or injured. Brahmanism has no faith in such things.

The Jains hold that death by gradual starvation is a noble thing. The Brahmans consider it a sin. The Jains consider wearing of cloths as something irreligious, but Brahmans do not go to such an extreme.